Erythritol: a review of biological and toxicological studies.

Erythritol has been used since 1990 in Japan as a component of candies, sugar substitutes, chocolates, Erythritol is a four-carbon sugar alcohol (polyol) that soft drinks, chewing gum, jellies, jams, and yogurt has a sweetness 60 to 80% that of sucrose (Sugita and (Mitsubishi and Nikken, 1996). These uses amount to Yamazaki, 1988; Goossens and Röper, 1994) and is ina per capita consumption in Japan of approximately tended for use in food principally as a low-calorie sweet46 mg erythritol/day (Mitsubishi and Nikken, 1996) ener. Its structure is shown in Fig. 1. It is produced or approximately 0.7 mg/kg body wt/day for a 60-kg from wheat or corn starch by enzymatic hydrolysis individual. yielding glucose which is fermented by safe and suitIn the United States, erythritol is intended for use able food-grade osmophilic yeasts, such as Moniliella as a flavor enhancer, formulation aid, humectant, nupollinis (Goossens and Röper, 1994) or Trichosporotritive sweetener, stabilizer and thickener, sequesnoides spp. Once erythritol is separated from the fertrant, and texturizer at maximum levels of 100% in mentation broth, it is purified by processes typical for sugar substitutes; 50% in hard candies; 40% in soft carbohydrate sweeteners and sugar alcohols (i.e., carcandies (mints and chocolates only); 1.5% in reducedbon filtration and resin treatment). The final crystaland low-calorie beverages; 60% in fat-based cream for line product is more than 99% pure. use in cookies, cakes, and pastries; 7% in dietetic cookErythritol occurs widely in nature and has been ies and wafers; and 60% in chewing gum. found to occur naturally in several foods including Erythritol is intended to be used in the same manner wine, sake, beer, mushroom, watermelon, pear, grape, as existing polyol food ingredients. Because erythritol and soy sauce at levels up to 0.13% (w/v) (Onishi and in most applications will substitute for these polyols, Saito, 1959, 1960; Yoshida et al., 1984; Shindou et al., its actual per capita intake will not exceed that re1988, 1989; Sponholz and Dittrich, 1985; Sponholz et ported for total polyols. al., 1986; Dubernet et al., 1974). Per capita consumpEstimating total polyol intake from dietary surveys tion of erythritol in the United States from its natural of motivated groups, such as persons with diabetes, led occurrence in foods (mostly cheese and wine) has been to average daily intakes of 4 g polyol/day based on a 7estimated to be 80 mg/person/day or approximately 1.3 day UK survey (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and mg/kg body wt/day (Modderman, 1996a,b). Food, 1990) and 5 g polyol/day based on a 2-day Finnish Evidence indicates that erythritol exists endogesurvey (Virtanen et al., 1988). Considering the techninously in the tissue and body fluids of humans and cal properties and expected market of erythritol, proanimals (Spencer, 1967; Horning et al., 1974; Oku and jected at no more than 20% of total polyols, its actual Noda, 1990a,b; Goossens and Röper, 1994; Noda et al., long-term intake is reasonably expected to be approxi1994). It has been identified in human plasma at levels mately 1 g erythritol/day (17 mg/kg body wt/day) and of approximately 1.2 mg/liter (Niwa et al., 1993) as well 4 g erythritol/day (67 mg/kg body wt/day) for mean and as in fetal blood of animals (Britton, 1967; Roberts et 90th percentile users, respectively. al., 1976). Erythritol also occurs normally in human Based on a recent 3-day food intake survey conducted urine (Goossens and Röper, 1994). Urinary concentraby the U.S. Department of Agriculture and on an indetions have been reported to range from 10 to 100 mg/ pendent chewing gum survey, and assuming that liter (Pitkänen and Pitkänen, 1964) or 42 to 65 mg/g erythritol will be used in all intended applications with no other polyols, a ‘‘maximum possible’’ erythritol increatinine (Pfaffenberger et al., 1976).